Argument against panpsychism

Argument against panpsychism. There is a possible reading of panpsychism where all physical properties are grounded in mental properties. Arguments are attacking both cognitivist and experientalist versions of panpsychism. I then propose a new argument against the Jan 23, 2024 · Related arguments addressing the problem of the emergence of consciousness have been subsumed as “genetic arguments” for panpsychism and have been put forward, e. edu Academia. Interpretation 1 of panpsychism squarely frames consciousness as subordinate to matter. May 23, 2001 · 4. Oct 20, 2016 · For the same reason, panpsychism is often labeled as a kind of monism. But Coleman argues that while the zombie, or conceivability, argument works for phenomenal qualities -- hence the need to posit them as fundamental entities -- it doesn't Nov 23, 2022 · While the argument aims to establish that harmonious correlations provide evidence for panpsychism, it is silent on how confident we should be in panpsychism. Idealist panpsychists posit that fundamental reality is purely experiential. Panpsychism is, roughly, the view that physical properties are identical to experiential, or phenomenal properties. For Gottfried Wilhelm Nov 9, 2018 · The ancient theory of consciousness, panpsychism, is undergoing something of a revival within philosophy of mind. The first is the famous ‘hard problem’ of consciousness. Nonetheless, the doctrine retains some attractive and interesting features. Of course, seen as an alternative to Cartesian dualism, panpsychism is monistic in spirit. May 4, 2007 · The objections in the first group are directed against Strawson's argument for panpsychism. The arguments for panpsychism imho are the following: 1) solves the hard problem of consciousness immediately 2) offers a solution to the measurement problem while simultaneously solving the problem of mental causation (by offering a variant of Wigner-style interpretation that doesn't suffer from Wigner's friend paradox by being monistic) Nov 17, 2021 · The argument against Panpsychism seems very strong with or w/o ‘zombies’: 1. Footnote 61 Chalmers develops a similar argument, invoking more precisely the principle of causal closure of the physical domain. The multiple realization argument 114. The argument for this claim is that while Russellian panpsychism can integrate consciousness in the causal order and explain mental causation, alternative theories fail to do Panpsychism is the view that consciousness is a fundamental and ubiquitous feature of the natural world. The hope of the contemporary proponents of panpsychism is that the view enables us to integrate consciousness into our overall theory of reality in a way that avoids the deep difficulties that plague the more conventional options of physicalism on the one hand and dualism on the other. Arguments for Panpsychism. Finally, in section 3, I will respond to objections to the argument. The argument is also subtle and intricate. I don’t see any strong proof that the idea of radical emergence is incoherent, but that does not mean it is attractive. The answer to that question partly depends on the strength of other arguments for and against panpsychism. The arguments for panpsychism may be conveniently grouped according to whether they presuppose the acceptance of a particular metaphysical system or some controversial epistemological theory or whether they are or purport to be of an empirical or inductive character. 3 James’ Master Argument Against the “Self-compounding of Mental Facts” James’ central objection to MST consists in his celebrated argument against the selfcompounding of mental facts (James 1890/1950, 158–162), which argument forms the backbone of what many identify today as the combination problem for panpsychism. Zach Blaesi - 2021 - Philosophical Studies 179 (6):1821-1852. [ 9 ] Nov 10, 2021 · Or perhaps not. No doubt, the panpschist’s claim to have the edge over the radical emergentist in Oct 9, 2023 · This paper presents a novel argument against one theoretically attractive form of panpsychism. Chalmers says that while no direct evidence exists for the theory, neither is there direct evidence against it, and that "there are indirect reasons, of a broadly theoretical character, for taking the view seriously". Sep 26, 2014 · On the one hand, materialists who find conceivability arguments compelling and those with dualist inclinations who, believing in the causal closure of Physics, do not want to render consciousness epiphenomenal might find in panpsychism (PP)—roughly, the thesis that the mind is ubiquitous throughout the universe—an interesting route to explore. I take a closer look at each of them to assess their advantages and weaknesses. Arguments put forward by renowned figures such as Thomas Nagel, Galen Strawson and David J. If grounding means that The conjunction of these two theses has motivated a version of panpsychism, which states that the intrinsic nature of all matter is phenomenal. But to actually consider a lichen or a quark endowed with a measure of consciousness is to recognize that its experience cannot, by structural definition, be anything close to our subjective human Argument Against Contemporary Panpsychism Abstract: Contemporary panpsychists, such as Lockwood (1991; 1993), Rosenberg (1999; 2004), and Maxwell (2002), argue that not synthesis is panpsychism. In considering responses to the notorious combination problem for panpsychism, the chapter moves onto other forms of panpsychism to examine whether they fare any better against this challenge. Abstract. The division is incomplete but makes a good start. John Searle states that panpsychism is an "absurd view" and that thermostats lack "enough structure even to be a remote candidate for consciousness" (Searle, 1997, p. e. In effect, the argument presents the two most powerful In that sense, it seems that panpsychism is just idealism masquerading as panpsychism in virtue of scientific talk on entities in empirical theories, which are by the way irrelevant for any of philosophical theses that deal with ultimate questions. Arguments for panpsychism. [9] Panpsychism ironically falls foul of the danger that, if the relationship between mind and world, or more specifically, knower and known, is too cosy, then there would be no objects of knowledge, even less a painful, laborious process of acquiring knowledge. Sep 20, 2016 · Panpsychism’s popularity stems from the fact that it promises to solve two deep problems simultaneously. Constitutive panpsychism and constitutive panqualityism are the two most attractive versions of Russellian monism. (willbeinsertedbytheeditor) The Moral Parody Argument Against Panpsychism Zach Blaesi Accepted:29August2021 Abstract I exploit parallel considerations in the philosophy of mind and synthesis is panpsychism. Evaluating those arguments is not on this paper’s agenda. I reconstruct the argument from continuity by expanding the mind-life continuity thesis under the rubric of the Free Energy Principle (FEP), by showing that FEP does not provide an objective criterion for demarcating the living from the inanimate Arguments against . One of Strawson's central assumptions is that the experiential cannot be reduced to the nonexperiential. Strawson’s case in favor of panpsychism is at heart an updated version of a venerable form of argument I’ll call the ‘intrinsic nature’ argument. Against the backdrop of our immense scientific knowledge of the physical world, and the corresponding widespread desire to explain everything ultimately in physical terms, panpsychism has come to seem an implausible view. Brief History. Argument against constitutive panpsychism (PDF) Argument against constitutive panpsychism | Anton Kuznetsov - Academia. Chalmers are being joined by an increasing number of established philosophers defending the claim that panpsychism is currently the most cogent way to understand human consciousness and its Oct 20, 2016 · However, once we relax the stricture against radical emergence, we face a disjunctive conclusion: either panpsychism is true or else there is radical emergence. Some panpsychists argue that the kind of experience we pre-theoretically believe in must be grounded in experience at the fundamental level, on the basis that the traditional options of physicalism and dualism are inadequate. 3 The Argument from Intrinsic Natures; 5. In contrast to substance dualism (the view that the universe consists of two kinds of substance, matter and mind), panpsychism does not involve minds popping into existence as certain forms of complex life emerge, or else a soul descending from an immaterial realm at the moment of conception. Here PP is the complete set of physical truths in conjunction with truths about micro-subjects and Q is an arbitrary truth about macro-subjects, such as “There is at least one macro-subject”. Aug 5, 2015 · Popper’s criticisms mostly read like the work of someone determined to reverse-engineer an argument against a view that he—an ardent devotee of a particularly hard-nosed brand of philosophy of science—instinctively disliked. Philip Goff, one of the most persuasive advocates of panpsychism, is guest editor of this issue of Philosophy Now. A number of philosophers, whilst not denying these negative aspects of the view, think that panpsychism has in its favour that it offers a good explanation of consciousness. 247–248). It offers an argument against panpsychism—the notion that experience is a fundamental aspect of all matter—based on the fact that new quantum gravity theories indicate that spacetime is emergent, instead of a fundamental scaffolding of nature. In this reply, I show that the argument is unsound. Turing machine functionalism 117. Jan 1, 2021 · Arguments against panpsychism are assessed and critiqued, and potential directions for panpsychism are explored. Panpsychism and the Scientific World View; 2. Zach Blaesi - 2022 - Philosophical Studies 179 (1):1821–1852. While this argument does not refute panpsychism, it does pose an indirect challenge to the view. Those who put forth such reductions -- Strawson mentions Daniel Dennett, Fred Dretske, Michael Tye, and two of our commentators, Lycan and Rey -- are Jul 28, 2023 · PDF | Arguments against panpsychism are assessed and critiqued, and potential directions for panpsychism are explored. But this description might be too coarse-grained. It doesn’t actually explain consciousness. With the master argument for panpsychism clearly laid out, the parallels in metaethics are striking. One criticism of panpsychism is the simple lack of evidence that the physical entities have any mental attributes. Modern History of Panpsychism; 4. Contemporary panpsychists, such as Lockwood (1991, 1993), Rosenberg (1999, 2004) and Maxwell (2002), have taken it upon themselves to flesh out a plausible story of how this is so. If consciousness is a fundamental aspect of matter, then the gap between the physical and the mental doesn’t exist because consciousness is already built into the fabric In this journal S Siddharth has recently argued that the phenomenal bonding response to the subject summing argument for panpsychism is question begging, therefore we should reject constitutive forms of panpsychism. May 23, 2001 · Zach Blaesi (2021) has constructed a moral parody argument against panpsychism. Nov 4, 2021 · Seager in The ‘Intrinsic Nature’ Argument for Panpsychism names Descartes as the originator of the idea that mental is intrinsic. He sets out from the ‘locus classicus’: William James’s presentation of the combination problem in his 1890 The Principles of Psychology. 1Other recent work discussing the combination problem includes Basile 2012, Blamauer 2011, Dainton 2011, Gab- Jan 13, 2012 · Most here propound panpsychism of some sort; two criticize it (Pierfrancesco Basile, Michael Blamauer), preferring dualism or idealism instead. Most recently, Galen Strawson has presented a forceful argument for panpsychism based on the inexplicability of emergence of mind (see Section 4). It suggests that it is possible to conceive of a being that is identical in every physical way to a conscious being, but May 25, 2015 · However – and to my horror – my ideas sometimes get conflated with the interpretations of panpsychism discussed above. Historical precedent for the combination problem can be found in Lucretius ([c50 BCE] 2007) and Clarke ([1707–18] 2011). May 23, 2001 · Zach Blaesi (2021) has constructed a moral parody argument against panpsychism. Adapting the zombie argument to be against functionalism 120. In a standard form of the view, the fundamental constituents of the physical world – perhaps electrons and quarks – have incredibly basic forms of conscious experience, and the consciousness of a human or animal brain is derived from the consciousness of its most basic parts. Why is Panpsychism a Minority View? Conclusion. Intro: Nov 10, 2021 · I exploit parallel considerations in the philosophy of mind and metaethics to argue that the reasoning employed in an important argument for panpsychism overgeneralizes to support an analogous position in metaethics: panmoralism. The first argument for panpsychism is that it can ground the best account of how something so apparently novel as consciousness could have arisen within a physical world whose development has otherwise been simply a re-arrangement of the homogeneous. In section 2, I will present my argument against idealist panpsychism. Arguments Against Panpsychism; Bibliography; Academic Tools; Other Internet Resources; Related Entries Apr 29, 2020 · Both arguments against panpsychism show that panpsychism, despite the necessity of phenomenal experience for any metaphysical foundation of physical structuralism, has serious problems with the concept of the subject of experience: The argument from the absurd multiplication of subjects of experience has shown that, under any panpsychistic Jan 1, 2020 · Lewis, however, remarks that there is a potential exception to this, which involves assuming two views concerning qualia (i) panphenomenalism (contemporary panpsychism): all instantiated fundamental properties are qualia and (ii) the identification thesis (revelation): we can know the identities of our qualia simply by being acquainted with them. Panpsychism, Emergence, and Pluralities: Reply to Bohn. 48). Mind is universal. By now panpsychists are not occupied with arguments for the view (for those see Strawson's 2006, and Nagel's groundbreaking 1979), but focus instead on elaborating and defending it against objections. That panpsychism, similar to science itself, doesn’t explain everything—like how species evolve—is obvious. Contents: Intro. In effect, the argument presents the two most powerful arguments Oct 20, 2016 · The argument for the thesis is the causal argument for materialism (and against dualism). Another argument against physicalism, which can be tracked back to Bertrand Russell (1897-1970) 8 and Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947) 9 , is based on the skepticism that physics is able to capture the true nature of reality, consciousness Sep 19, 2022 · The only thing worse than a good argument contrary to a conviction you hold is a bad argument in its favor. 5 On Aggregates and Unities: Or Against the backdrop of our immense scientific knowledge of the physical world, and the corresponding widespread desire to explain everything ultimately in physical terms, panpsychism has come to seem an implausible view. , Russellian panpsychism, is a superior view compared to alternative non-physicalist theories. It’s no better than ascribing to ghost. The problem for materialism of describing how May 5, 2024 · In the contemporary literature on panpsychism, one often finds the claim that a Russellian-monist version of panpsychism, i. Next, I raise a number of problems for panmoralism and thereby build a case for taking the metaethical parallel to be a reductio ad absurdum of the argument for The combination problem seems largely outdated as an argument against panpsychism, because in modern day it seems to largely be a common understanding about how the brain works in general. An evolutionary argument against panpsychism . 2. edu no longer supports Internet Explorer. ) was a great light at the peak of India’s resplendent Gupta empire. There are various formulations of the concept, ranging from weaker to stronger versions, usually involving how much "consciousness" different things have. Oct 8, 2017 · Of course, anyone who would take panpsychism seriously is usually motivated by the standard anti-physicalist arguments, and these would certainly apply to higher-order theory. As I point out, the way in which one argues implies the version of panpsychism one adopts. The elements are therefore sentient, although different entities have a different level of sensation (Campanella 1925; Ernst 2010). as the tu quoque argument against panpsychism is based on a naïve endors ement of James ’ argument, one must conclude that it is no more than a red herring. Panpsychism is distinguished from hylozoism (all matter is living) and pantheism (everything is God). But the problem that separate consciousnesses creates for panpsychism (even elementary particles are conscious) does not, he says, exist in the same way for cosmopsychism (there is one universal consciousness), the view he holds: The causal argument 112. So let’s 2. Adapting the Chinese room argument to be against Apr 22, 2011 · The Buddhist philosopher Vasubandhu (4 th to 5 th century C. 1 Genetic Arguments; 4. Jarocki The Moral Parody Argument Against Panpsychism. Panpsychism is the view that forms of sentience are ubiquitous in nature, in contradistinction to the popular notion that sentience is an emergent property of the physiology of complex animals. | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Dec 28, 2023 · Panpsychism is a metaphysical concept that all matter is conscious. view, panpsychism should be rejected as well. E. Softer forms of panpsychism may include the position that all matter has the possibility of being conscious or that all matter, while not necessarily being conscious, has Oct 9, 2023 · This paper presents a novel argument against one theoretically attractive form of panpsychism. Jul 6, 2018 · Thus, Griffin takes up a classic argument against dualism, namely that if the psychic and the physical constitute two different substances, then their interaction is incomprehensible. May 8, 2021 · The paper draws on scientific resources formed around the notion of Free Energy Principle to reconstruct two well-known defences of panpsychism. Aug 26, 2024 · Arguments For and Against Panpsychism Proponents of panpsychism argue that the theory elegantly sidesteps many of the problems faced by materialist accounts of consciousness. Discussion Panpsychism is the view that all matter has mental properties. Campanella later connects panpsychic thought Mar 17, 2017 · This chapter equates panpsychism with constitutive panpsychism. g. Many proponents of panpsychism base their arguments not on empirical support but on panpsychism's theoretical virtues. Synthesized, these yield the Hegelian argument for panpsychism. Arguments Against/Problems. 23. Overcoming a good argument can strengthen your position, while failing to may prompt you to reevaluate it. In either case, you’ve learned something—if perhaps at the expense of a cherished belief. A common defence of panpsychism is that, while (as Goff admits) it seems crazy, no other The second main argument-call this the argument from anti-noumenalism-claims that Russellian panpsychism offers the only positive account of what the categorical grounds of physical dispositions Dec 1, 2016 · Download Citation | On Dec 1, 2016, Anton V. Early History of Panpsychism; 3. The argument for the thesis is the causal argument for materialism (and against dualism). Kuznetsov published Argument against constitutive panpsychism | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate mon arguments for panpsychism: the Continuity Argument, the Hegelian Argu-ment, and the Agnostic Argument. The conceivability argument against panpsychism is a version of the combination problem, which is the problem in panpsychism of how micro-consciousnesses combine into macro-consciousnesses. When confronted with the moral parody argument, panpsychists are left with four options: (i) adopt panmoralism; (ii) reject Aug 17, 2021 · Paradoxically, this misunderstanding of panpsychism is often used as an argument against panpsychism itself, not against its misunderstanding. Dec 7, 2023 · 5 But what about that branch of positivism known as linguistic phenomenalism? That seems to be a form of panpsychism; and, in fact, Meixner, in “Idealism and Panpsychism” has argued that it is, presumably because it took sense data to be the foundations of both knowledge and language, with references to the physical being just a linguistic shorthand with no ontological significance. Jul 21, 2022 · The first premise of the zombie argument is stronger than required for a modal argument against strong panpsychism. Arguments For Panpsychism. The conceivability argument may be particularly compelling because panpsychists often use their own version of a conceivability argument against physicalism. In opposition to this, the paper argues that panpsychism cannot help us to explain consciousness, at least not the However, I can clearly see that he proposes this argument when he writes: “the argument presents the two most powerful arguments for and against materialism and dualism, and motivates a certain sort of panpsychism as a view that captures the virtues of both views and the vices of neither” (Chalmers, 2015, pp. There is reason to think our sum consciousness is in a sense different small ones added together. Analytic functionalism versus empirical functionalism 118. Elementary particles have no internal structure and thus no internal state to respond to or even remember information or make choices. May 1, 2013 · Download Citation | A Representationalist Argument Against Contemporary Panpsychism | Contemporary panpsychists, such as Lockwood (1991; 1993), Rosenberg (1999; 2004), and Maxwell (2002), argue Apr 29, 2020 · Both arguments against panpsychism show that panpsychism, despite the necessity of phenomenal experience for any metaphysical foundation of physical structuralism, has serious problems with the concept of the subject of experience: The argument from the absurd multiplication of subjects of experience has shown that, under any panpsychistic Many proponents of panpsychism base their arguments not on empirical support but on panpsychism's theoretical virtues. The most common descriptions of "intrinsicness" single out those properties that a thing would have when alone in the universe, or that any of its "duplicates" would have. I then try to systematically lay out the options for dealing with the combination problem, examining their advantages and disadvantages. Oct 28, 2022 · He emphasizes that everything is sentient and argues in favor of panpsychism by means of an argument against the emergence: what is in the effect, must be in the cause. This is the moral parody argument against panpsychism. We could replace it with: We can imagine a world that contains all the rocks that our world contains, but no consciousness. This paper considers a recent debate between Sam Coleman and Kevin Panpsychism, (from Greek pan, “all”; psychē, “soul”), a philosophical theory asserting that a plurality of separate and distinct psychic beings or minds constitute reality. Philosophical Studies manuscript No. Philosophy: +ve & -ve. Apr 15, 2010 · However, a careful look at the conceptual terrain pertaining to the combination problem, and in particular at James’ actual argument, reveals that as a general tu quoque argument against panpsychism the effectiveness of James’ argument is seriously limited. If this is correct, panpsychism deserves its place as a main contender in solving the mind-body problem. 17 13 J. , in Strawson —arguing that “real” physicalism must be considered to entail panpsychism, as (A), “[f]ull recognition of the reality of experience [] is the obligatory The argument, in very broad terms, is simply that panpsychism fairs better against the zombie argument against materialism, and the causal argument against dualism, while retaining the best features of materialism and dualism. []. 4 1. However Paul Edwards (1967) divided arguments for panpsychism into the two broad categories of genetic and analogical. Most discussed is the worry that causal structuralist attempts to characterise the nature of matter lead either to a vicious regress or a vicious circle. Let’s say that an o-moral fact [P] arises from some natural facts \(\varDelta\) just in case the facts in \(\varDelta\) either normatively ground [P] or metaphysically ground [P] (on their own or together with a fact about o-moral or o-normative properties, such as the holding tion problem can be turned into an argument against panpsychism. Apr 1, 2024 · There has recently been a revival of interest in panpsychism as a theory of consciousness. Such a world is also impossible, according to strong panpsychists, since according to them actual rocks The moral parody argument against panpsychism. 1. 4. Three Kinds of Arguments for Panpsychism. [] His works display his mastery of Buddhist as well as non-Buddhist thought of the day, and he made his mark, successively, upon three Buddhist scholastic traditions that are traditionally considered distinct: Vaibhāṣika, Sautrāntika, and Yogācāra. It is an extremely interesting argument which deploys all sorts of high caliber metaphysical weaponry (despite the ‘down home’ appeals to common sense which Strawson frequently makes). Idealist Panpsychism Jun 1, 2022 · Download Citation | The moral parody argument against panpsychism | I exploit parallel considerations in the philosophy of mind and metaethics to argue that the reasoning employed in an important In Section 1, attention will be devoted to some main arguments urged in support of panpsychism and to some of the objections that can be raised against it: panpsychism will here be treated as a general philosophical position and no direct reference will be made to Whitehead’s version of the theory, which is discussed in Section 2. May 8, 2021 · The theory is presented as a form of panpsychism. I argue against this interpretation and show that Beni’s structuralist theory runs into the hard problem of consciousness, in a similar way as 1. This turns out to be especially important Apr 14, 2020 · The problem can be expressed as the following conceivability argument against panpsychism (Goff 2009). Thus, at present we can discern at least six active lines of inquiry into panpsychism: However, there are powerful arguments against causal structuralism. In this paper, I argue that Russellian panpsychism’s ( Aug 20, 2020 · So, I think that’s a very strong argument against panpsychism. 2 Analogical Arguments; 4. Arguments against Functionalism 119. Probably the best way to locate panpsychism within the mind–body problem is to see it as the counter position to emergentist views of mentality (of which modern physicalist theories are all examples). In an excellent, albeit far from unbiased, article on panpsychism and its history, Paul Edwards (1967) divided the arguments for panpsychism into two broad categories: genetic and analogical. 2 Modern common sense bridles at the claim that planets, trees, rocks, atoms, or electrons possess mental attributes. It adopts the via negativa definition of physicalism. May 2, 2023 · The second argument is the conceivability argument against physicalism. This chapter explores the conceptual landscape of the most important, current critique of panpsychism—the combination problem. Dec 19, 2018 · Scientific American recently published a very interesting essay by philosopher Susan Schneider. This paper starts from the assumption that panpsychism is counterintuitive and metaphysically demanding. The argument specifically focuses on the proposals of Goff and Miller. Another Presocratic philosopher who has been said to espouse panpsychism for reasons similar in form to those of Thales (that is, via analogy and indeed an analogy with motion production) is Anaximenes (whose dates within the sixth century BCE are uncertain), who identified “air” (or “breath”) with soul or mind, thus making mind ubiquitous. Panpsychism offers the hope of an extremely elegant and unified picture of the world. According to panpsychists, mind is not confined to conscious living creatures, but is a fundamental and universal property of all things. Sep 25, 2023 · A theory called panpsychism proposes that consciousness is a fundamental aspect of reality “I sometimes wonder if the panpsychist position is similar to ‘god of the gaps’ arguments The argument for this claim is that while Russellian panpsychism can integrate consciousness in the causal order and explain mental causation, alternative theories fail to do so. So before I discuss my argument against panpsychism, I want first to make clear how the latter differs from Idealism/Nondualism. Synthesized, these yield the Hegelian argument for pan-psychism. The argument for the antithesis is the conceivability argument for dualism (and against materialism). Sep 11, 2023 · In my paper, I examine the three most common arguments for panpsychism: the Continuity Argument, the Hegelian Argument, and the Agnostic Argument. Hence, a naïve employment of the argument, as a critique leveled by Russellian monism is a metaphysical theory about the relationship between consciousness and the physical world that has been increasingly discussed in analytic philosophy as a solution to the mind-body problem. The Varieties of Functionalism 117. May 7, 2022 · Even though Keith Campbell didn’t begin with the word “panpsychism”, the following passage expresses the broad gist of what has been called the Panpsychist Argument For Continuity. How does the brain produce It is called panpsychism. I argue that ‘idealist panpsychism’ is false because it cannot account for spacetime's structure. May 31, 2015 · However – and to my horror – my ideas sometimes get conflated with the interpretations of panpsychism discussed above. However, an emergentist panpsychist who thinks that causation is an intelligible process will need to make sense of the intelligible emergence of biological subjects, something that is threatened by Goff’s conceivability argument against mental combination (considered in the discussion of the subject-summing problem). fiyk jcwprl uaoixo tttl amrsg xrveoc yhloguv kdpu nwfvuz dhj